Immanuel Kant - Wikipedia. Immanuel Kant (; [6]German: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant]; 2. April 1. 72. 4 – 1. February 1. 80. 4) was a German philosopher who is a central figure in modern philosophy.[7] Kant argued that the human mind creates the structure of human experience, that reason is the source of morality, that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment, that space and time are forms of our sensibility, and that the world as it is "in- itself" is independent of our concepts of it. Kant took himself to have effected a "Copernican revolution" in philosophy, akin to Copernicus' reversal of the age- old belief that the sun revolved around the earth. His beliefs continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political theory, and aesthetics. Politically, Kant was one of the earliest exponents of the idea that perpetual peace could be secured through universal democracy and international cooperation. He believed that this will be the eventual outcome of universal history, although it is not rationally planned.[8] The exact nature of Kant's religious ideas continues to be the subject of especially heated philosophical dispute, as viewpoints are ranging from the idea that Kant was an early and radical exponent of atheism who finally exploded the ontological argument for God's existence, to more critical treatments epitomized by Nietzsche who claimed that Kant had "theologian blood"[9] and that Kant was merely a sophisticated apologist for traditional Christian religious belief, writing that "Kant wanted to prove, in a way that would dumbfound the common man, that the common man was right: that was the secret joke of this soul."[1. In one of Kant's major works, the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1. Kant wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, while resisting the skepticism of thinkers such as David Hume. Kant regarded himself as ending and showing the way beyond the impasse which modern philosophy had led to between rationalists and empiricists,[1. Kant argued that our experiences are structured by necessary features of our minds. In his view, the mind shapes and structures experience so that, on an abstract level, all human experience shares certain essential structural features. Plato’s argument for rule by philosopher kings is neither persuasive nor realistic in theory, but traces of the characteristics of his ideal form of rule do appear. Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership and democratic control of the means of production, as well as the political. Background Surgery has become an integral part of global health care, with an estimated 234 million operations performed yearly. Surgical complications are common and. Among other things, Kant believed that the concepts of space and time are integral to all human experience, as are our concepts of cause and effect.[1. One important consequence of this view is that our experience of things is always of the phenomenal world as conveyed by our senses: we do not have direct access to things in themselves, the so- called noumenal world. Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1. Metaphysics of Morals (Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1. Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1. Biography. Immanuel Kant was born on April 2. Königsberg, Prussia (since 1. Kaliningrad, Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia). His mother, Anna Regina Reuter[1. Königsberg to a father from Nuremberg. Her name is sometimes erroneously given as Anna Regina Porter.) His father, Johann Georg Kant (1. German harness maker from Memel, at the time Prussia's most northeastern city (now Klaipėda, Lithuania). Immanuel Kant believed that his paternal grandfather Hans Kant was of Scottish origin.[1. While scholars of Kant's life long accepted the claim, there is no evidence that Kant's paternal line was Scottish; it is more likely that the Kants got their name from the village of Kantwaggen (today part of Priekulė) and were of Curonian origin.[1. Kant was the fourth of nine children (four of them reached adulthood).[1. Baptized 'Emanuel', he changed his name to 'Immanuel'[2. Hebrew. Young Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student[citation needed]. Kant was born into a Lutheran. Protestant family in East Prussia. He was brought up in a Pietist household that stressed religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible[citation needed]. His education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on Latin and religious instruction over mathematics and science.[2. Kant maintained a belief in Christianity,[2. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals he reveals a belief in human immortality as the necessary condition of our continued approach to the highest good possible.[2. However, as Kant was skeptical about Theism, various commentators have labelled him agnostic.[2. Common myths about Kant's personal mannerisms are listed, explained, and refuted in Goldthwait's introduction to his translation of Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime.[3. It is often held that Kant lived a very strict and disciplined life, leading to an oft- repeated story that neighbors would set their clocks by his daily walks. He never married, but seemed to have a rewarding social life — he was a popular teacher and a modestly successful author even before starting on his major philosophical works. He had a circle of friends whom he frequently met, among them Joseph Green, an English merchant in Königsberg. A common myth is that Kant never traveled more than 1. Königsberg his whole life.[3. In fact, between 1. Hauslehrer) in Judtschen[3. Veselovka, Russia, approximately 2. Groß- Arnsdorf[3. Jarnołtowo near Morąg (German: Mohrungen), Poland, approximately 1. Young scholar. Kant showed a great aptitude for study at an early age. He first attended the Collegium Fridericianum from which he graduated at the end of the summer of 1. In 1. 74. 0, aged 1. University of Königsberg, where he spent his whole career.[3. He studied the philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz and Christian Wolff under Martin Knutzen (Associate Professor of Logic and Metaphysics from 1. British philosophy and science and introduced Kant to the new mathematical physics of Isaac Newton. Knutzen dissuaded Kant from the theory of pre- established harmony, which he regarded as "the pillow for the lazy mind". He also dissuaded Kant from idealism, the idea that reality is purely mental, which most philosophers in the 1. The theory of transcendental idealism that Kant developed in the Critique of Pure Reason is not traditional idealism and the Critique's second part even argues against traditional idealism.)His father's stroke and subsequent death in 1. Kant left Königsberg shortly after August 1. August 1. 75. 4.[3. He became a private tutor in the towns surrounding Königsberg, but continued his scholarly research. In 1. 74. 9, he published his first philosophical work, Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces (written in 1. Early work. Kant is best known for his work in the philosophy of ethics and metaphysics,[3. He made an important astronomical discovery about the nature of Earth's rotation, for which he won the Berlin Academy Prize in 1. According to Lord Kelvin in 1. Kant made contributions useful to mathematicians or physical astronomers. According to Thomas Huxley in 1. Kant made contributions to geology as well when, in 1. General Natural History and Theory of the Celestial Bodies; or, an Attempt to Account for the Constitutional and Mechanical Origin of the Universe, upon Newtonian Principles."In the General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens (Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels) (1. Kant laid out the Nebular hypothesis, in which he deduced that the Solar System formed from a large cloud of gas, a nebula. Thus he tried to explain the order of the solar system, which Isaac Newton had explained as imposed from the beginning by God. Kant also correctly deduced that the Milky Way was a large disk of stars, which he theorized also formed from a (much larger) spinning cloud of gas. He further suggested that other nebulae might also be similarly large and distant disks of stars. These postulations opened new horizons for astronomy: for the first time extending astronomy beyond the solar system to galactic and extragalactic realms.[4. From then on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he continued to write on the sciences throughout his life. In the early 1. 76. Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy. The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures, a work in logic, was published in 1. Socialism - Wikipedia. Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership and democratic control of the means of production,[1. Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, or to citizen ownership of equity.[1. There are many varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them.[1. Social ownership is the common element shared by its various forms.[5][1. Socialist economic systems can be divided into non- market and market forms.[1. Non- market socialism involves the substitution of factor markets and money, with engineering and technical criteria, based on calculation performed in- kind, thereby producing an economic mechanism that functions according to different economic laws from those of capitalism. Non- market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system.[2. By contrast, market socialism retains the use of monetary prices, factor markets, and, in some cases, the profit motive, with respect to the operation of socially owned enterprises and the allocation of capital goods between them. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm, or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend.[2. The socialist calculation debate discusses the feasibility and methods of resource allocation for a socialist system. The socialist political movement includes a set of political philosophies that originated in the revolutionary movements of the mid- to- late 1. In addition to the debate over markets and planning, the varieties of socialism differ in their form of social ownership, how management is to be organised within productive institutions, and the role of the state in constructing socialism.[2][1. Core dichotomies include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, and state socialism versus libertarian socialism. Socialist politics has been both centralist and decentralised; internationalist and nationalist in orientation; organised through political parties and opposed to party politics; at times overlapping with trade unions and at other times independent of, and critical of, unions; and present in both industrialised and developing countries.[2. While all tendencies of socialism consider themselves democratic, the term "democratic socialism" is often used to highlight its advocates' high value for democratic processes in the economy and democratic political systems,[3. Democratic socialism" is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion.[3. By the late 1. 9th century, after the work of Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels, "socialism" had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a post- capitalist system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production.[3. By the 1. 92. 0s, social democracy and communism had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement.[3. By this time, Socialism emerged as "the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. It is a political ideology (or world view), a wide and divided political movement"[3. Soviet Union as the world's first nominally socialist state led to socialism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, many economists and intellectuals argued that in practice the model functioned as a form of state capitalism,[3. Socialist parties and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such as environmentalism, feminism and liberalism.[4. Etymology. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage and scope of the word. For Andrew Vincent, "The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas. This latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen."[4. The term "socialism" was created by Henri de Saint- Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled "utopian socialism". Simon coined "socialism" as a contrast to the liberal doctrine of "individualism", which stressed that people act or should act as if they are in isolation from one another.[4. The original "utopian" socialists condemned liberal individualism for failing to address social concerns during the industrial revolution, including poverty, social oppression, and gross inequalities in wealth; viewing liberal individualism as degenerating society into supporting selfish egoism that harmed community life through promoting a society based on competition.[4. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the shared ownership of resources, although their proposals for socialism differed significantly. Saint- Simon proposed economic planning, scientific administration, and the application of modern scientific advancements to the organization of society; by contrast, Robert Owen proposed the organization of production and ownership in cooperatives.[4. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux,[4. Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France; and in Britain to Robert Owen in 1. The modern definition and usage of "socialism" settled by the 1. The term "communism" also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption (in the form of free access to final goods).[5. By 1. 88. 8, however, Marxists employed the term "socialism" in place of "communism", which had come to be considered an old- fashion synonym for socialism. It was not until 1. Bolshevik revolution that "socialism" came to refer to a distinct stage between capitalism and communism, introduced by Vladimir Lenin as a means to defend the Bolshevik seizure of power against traditional Marxist criticisms that Russia's productive forces were not sufficiently developed for socialist revolution.[5. A distinction between "communist" and "socialist" as descriptors of political ideologies arose in 1. Russian Social- Democratic Labour Party renamed itself to the All- Russian Communist Party, where "communist" came to specifically mean socialists who supported the politics and theories of Leninism, Bolshevism and later Marxism- Leninism; [5. The words socialism and communism eventually accorded with the adherents' and opponents' cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life. In Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite; hence, English atheists denoted themselves socialists.[5. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1. Communist Manifesto was published, "socialism was respectable on the continent, while communism was not". The Owenites in England and the Fourierists in France were considered "respectable" socialists, while working- class movements that "proclaimed the necessity of total social change" denoted themselves communists. This latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany.[5. The British moral philosopher. John Stuart Mill also came to advocate a form of economic socialism within a liberal context. In later editions of his Principles of Political Economy (1. Mill would argue that "as far as economic theory was concerned, there is nothing in principle in economic theory that precludes an economic order based on socialist policies".[5. While democrats looked to the Revolutions of 1. Marxists denounced 1. History. Early socialism. Socialist models and ideas espousing common or public ownership have existed since antiquity. It has been claimed, though controversially, that there were elements of socialist thought in the politics of classical Greek philosophers Plato[6. Aristotle.[6. 1]Mazdak, a Persian communal proto- socialist,[6.
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